CHAPTER THREE(B)
DISCUSSION
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And, "there are methods appropriate to each situation. things change and evolve. Each has its characteristics. One should study the situation exhaustively and design accordingly" [F:1].
Not only are there appropriate methods to each situation, but time is yet another crucial element that one must be alert to. "Gauge and calculate a proper timing, following what the convenience demands, and seek changes" [C:8]. "In order to be successful in carrying out a plan, the plan must match the calculation. The method, the calculation and the timing should all match" [H:15].
Information about a given situation allows adjust to the situation. and all other moves, one to Ch'ing is a priori for planning including designing the verbal message that leads to successful persuasion.
"First, one must figure out the feelings, then refine the language to make it elegant and well organized and then it can be presented for discussion" [G:11]. "Once I have grasped the feeling for the situation, I can begin to design the method. Thus, I can freely retreat or advance; I can liberally form the bond or dissolve it" [C:16]. And, conversely, "When the devised plan does not match [the will of the prince] properly, it is because there are things that I do not know" [C:11].
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Not only does fundamental just as failures Kuei Ku Tzu repeatedly assert the importance of getting ch'ing, he provides just as many warnings of the grave consequences of failures in getting ch'ing properly. "Even if of he possesses the way of the ancient kings and the ability of the sages and the wise, he gets nowhere without figuring out the hidden feelings. This is the grand root of planning and the method of persuasion" (G:8). "If the gained information is not clear, the established foundation [for persuasion or decision making] will not be sound" [B:10]. "Without carefully weighing the power situation, he would not know how to address [properly] the strong and the weak, to tell apart the unimportant from the important. Without carefully figuring out the feelings of the princes, he would not know the dynamics of the invisible changes" [G:1]. And, most directly, "Actions taken without observing proper categorical types will be rejected. Persuading without getting the feeling for the situation will be condemned" [C:15].
Since getting ch'ing is so crucial a part of persuasion, one may want to know, more specifically, what it entails.
We have already seen that it is one and same time feeling/emotions, information and situation. Part of knowing the situation is knowing the appropriate method
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and timing in dealing with it. But ch'ing is more than that.
Getting ch'ing is not just turning outwards to gather what there is to know in a situation and in other people. First of all, one should turn his perception apparatus inwards to examine himself. One should "be capable of self-evaluation, know his own intelligence, his own strength and weakness" [F:10]. Only when one has some knowledge of himself--his ability, his potential, his psychological make-up and so on, can he start to gather information about others. "The beginning of knowledge is the self. When I know myself, I can begin to know others. These mutual knowing accompany each other like the eyes of a flounder....Then, I can discern a person's speech without failure as a needle is attracted by a lodestone or as the tongue is attracted to roast ribs" [B:17].
Knowing the self and knowing others not only accompany each other, they complement each other "just as the yin and yang complement each other, and as the earth accompanies the heaven [B:19]. "If I cannot do this (i.e., the mutual knowing of self and others) skillfully, I would be lost [in feelings] and go astray from the Way" [B:21].
Not only should the persuader know his audience, his knowledge of the people that his audience is
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associated with is also important. This is more than an assessment of the audience's power base, but sometimes it is a channel through which the persuader obtains further information. "If having moved him, I still cannot see any changes, then leave him alone, do not talk to him. Rather, talk with someone who knows him intimately and find out what he is comfortable with" [G:5].
Depending on the ultimate goal of persuasion, the persuader is required to assemble information that is commensurate to the task. If one is to manage the affairs of the world, "he should be able to watch for heavenly timing, scrutinize the topography of the land, the formation of strategic passes, the wealth of the people, the relations of the countries, and know which are friendly and trusted allies and which are hostile and distant enemies" [E:6]. If he is to be used to manage people, then, in addition to measuring his intelligence and ability, his talent and strength, one should "estimate his charismatic potential" [E:8].
The range of information covers the realm of heaven, earth and people. Timing is referred to as heavenly for two reasons. In the first place, obviously, time is a cosmological phenomenon. And, secondly, Kuei Ku Tzu suggests that one watch carefully "the changes of astrological phenomena to detect where good fortune and evil lie" [G:3]. When people hold the belief that the position
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of stars influences the happenings on earth, and the moving of stars affects the fortunes of people, timing is indeed heavenly.
Information such as the typography of the land, strategic passes, foreign relations, relative prosperity of the people, can be regarded as earthly matters.
These two types of information, though important, did not occupy nearly as much of Kuel Ku Tzu's attention as the third kind--that of the people and human relationships.
There are types of information which are easily seen and heard. But there is also information which does not meet the eye. And it is this latter that is the most demanding of the skill of the persuader. "There is a way to follow in planning, that is to pursue the course to find out the hidden information" [J:1).
Hidden or not, information of the audience and the situation is essential to persuasion. And there are methods for gathering it.
2. Methods of Gathering Ch'ing
Generally, the instruments for gathering ch'ing are the mouth, the ears, the eyes and the heart. The ears are
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there for listening. The eyes for observing. The heart for discerning. The mouth for expressing. "The mouth is the mechanism for holding back emotions and intentions. The ears and the eyes are the supporting mechanism of the heart for perceiving and discovering treachery and deviousness. Therefore, they should be employed harmo niously and used only when beneficial" [1:14].
What is visible is relatively easy to perceive and take note of; what is invisible is difficult to find out. To address this problem, Kuei Ku Tzu, on the one hand, stated the importance of being on guard concerning the genuine feelings: "He whose face shows no excitement over the beautiful or the ugly can be trusted with the ultimate information. He who can be trusted can be put to use. He who cannot be trusted will not be used by a planner" [J:22]. On the other hand, he proposed some specific methods of fishing for the hidden feelings.
If done successfully, the hidden feelings will be manifested by the corresponding external expressions which can be observed. These external expressions are one's behavior, speech and silence. "Whatever changes occur in feelings within will have manifestations without. Therefore, I must always make references from the visible to the invisible. This is called fathoming the deep and detecting feelings" [G:6].
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Pai-ho, Fang-ying, Ch'uai and Mo are some of the recommended methods of fathoming the deep and detecting feelings.
Pai is to speak. Ho is to be silent and let speak. However, when the task is to find out the hidden ch'ing, the act of pai is to stir him and to let him express him self. "slightly rejecting what he says, I prod him to respond in order to find out the truth" [A:3]. Language is used as a tool. "Using different symbols to find the one which his heart responds to, I would then perceive his feelings and then shepherd him" [B:6].
Fan-ying, translated "reflection and repetition", is used to understand the past and present, to understand other and the self, "when the principles of motion and stillness, substance and emptiness do not match the present situation, reflect upon the past to seek them" [B:2]. Because a person's behavior, including speech, accompanies his feelings, "I use fan (reflection) to seek his responses so as to observe what he rests upon" [B:15].
These two sets of methods: capitalize on active listening, skillful probing and reflective empathy. But Kuei Ku Tzu went one step further.
In the first chapter, pai-ho, Kuei Ku Tzu suggests, "To determine a person's strengths and weaknesses together with his real and unreal qualities, I should follow to detect his intentions and will" [A:3]. In another passage
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he writes, "[In order to know] whether to disagree or to agree, the first thing to do is to follow his intentions" [A:6]. This principle of "follow and detect" is given a much more elaborate development in later chapters:
To figure out [a person's feelings], I must approach him when he is greatly delighted and then push his desire to an extreme. When a person is possessed with desires, he cannot hide his real feelings. I must approach him when he is in great fear and push his fear and disgust to an extreme. When a person is possessed with fear and disgust, he cannot hide his real feelings. [G:4]
Once the hidden feeling is identified, Kuei Ku Tzu suggests one further device to make certain. This device is mo, "stroking". "Stroking is a method of figuring out" [H:1]. When done properly, "His internal feeling will surely correspond with some external signs. When there is such correspondence, some actions will surely follow" [H:2]. Stroking is part of the process of figuring out. Its goal is to ascertain surely the external manifestation of the hidden feelings. It is the final checking of the accuracy of ch'ing before taking action.
There are various kinds of stroking that one can apply, and "if stroking is of the right kind, there will always be correspondence. If I stroke him with what is desired, there will always be successful persuasion" [H:18].
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However, gathering ch'ing is not always easy. Actually, Kuei Ku Tzu recognized the difficulty and considered it "a path of lone travellers" [H:18]. He said, "These methods which the sage is singularly successful in using are accessible to everyone. Failure to use to use them successfully is due to impropriety in the use" [H:12]. And, again, "staying within the range of propriety is the most difficult in figuring out feelings" [G:9].
Of course, this "range of propriety" is not merely the use of proper methods. It involves everything that Kuei Ku Tzu has stressed: timeliness, secrecy, resourcefulness and so on. More specifically, he suggested, "strive for acuity when listening, clarity when knowing, and the unexpected when speaking" [1:28].
Listening is only one way to get ch'ing. As we have seen, there are some other ways. Regardless of what method is used, "My dealing with people is subtle. My perception of the situation is quick" (B:18]. And, most interestingly, he pointed out,
Only a sage who understands the intricacy of things can manage the affairs of the world. Only he who is willing to exercise his mind and heart can trace things to their sources. Only he who can exhaust his heart to understand the circumstance can make a reputation. A talent short of excellence cannot resort to arms. Sincerity short of genuineness cannot be used to understand other people. [F:9]
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Here is apparently an appeal to use heart and genuine empathy--almost an antithesis to the cold-blooded maneuvering that some of his methods may imply. But, we should also remember that Kuei Ku Tzu would not reject anything for the attainment of the set goal. "I am skillful in reversion and listening and will alternately use god-like or ghost-like methods to gain [the desired] information" [B:9]. Indeed, "nothing is too small when using the petty, and nothing is too big when using the great" [A:18]. And that goes for gathering ch'ing, too.
C. FOUR SPECIFIC METHODS
A great part of Kuei Ku Tzu has been devoted to discussion of the nature of persuasion and thegathering of ch'ing. Having understood these general and the basic ideas, we can now consider some specific methods in persuasion. Each of these methods addresses a unique purpose, implies the gathering of specific kinds of information and involves specific kinds of decision making. They can be seen as applications of the basic principles. Even though they are not exhaustive by any
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means, they are useful in providing additional insights into Kuei Ku Tzu's persuasion.
1. Nei-chien: The Internal Bond
In observing the intricate human relationship, Kuei Ku Tzu noticed the question of distance and intimacy. "In the affairs of the prince and his ministers..., sometimes distance does not preclude intimacy, and closeness does not preclude aloofness" [C:1]. What appears to be is not always what is. Physical proximity does not guarantee proximity of the spirit.
The cause for such paradoxical existence is the substance of a relationship which Kuei Ku Tzu calls "the internal bond". "When the elements match, the foundation [of the bond] begins to form" [C:2]. Kuei Ku Tzu did not specify what these elements were. But he did say that "the bonds can be formed by virtue and morality, by friendship, by wealth or by lust" [C:3]. It is perhaps helpful to consider these "matching elements" in conjunction with "persuading the right person". For any per suasion to be possible, there ought to be something communicable between the parties involved. That something communicable may be well be what Kuei Ku Tzu would con-
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sider as the matching elements--something that the persuader can offer and that the persuadee can respond to. The forming of internal bond takes more than matching of elements. "When there is internal discord, do not take any action. Rather, gauge and calculate a proper timing, following what the convenience demands, and seek change" [C:8]. It takes keen perception of the ch'ing and proper adjustment. This explanation is followed by a brilliant analogy: "Building internal bonds by changing is like turning a key to find its point of contact" [C:8].a
All the effort of gathering ch'ing and adjusting is no more than searching for that point of contact. Only when that point is found is the timely turning of the key able to open the lock. Persuading a person is like opening the lock of his heart. The internal bond is the passage through which the key works. W 1912
Brilliant as the analogy is, it has its limit. The key turning illustrates the basic function of an internal bond. But an internal bond has other qualities. "The bond becomes internalized because of the speech adopted. The strength of the bond comes from the strength of planning"
[C: 5].
Apparently, once the internal bond is built, it can be internalized and
strengthened through planned speech--It takes persuasion to achieve persuasion.
A strong and internalized bond is invaluable. "In planning, the open approach is inferior to the concealed.
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The concealed is inferior to a firm bond without leakage" [J:18]. The benefit of having established such a bond is tremendous. "[Once the bond is formed], I can use my will freely. I can enter or exit at will; I can come or go as I wish; to serve or to be missed as I choose.... I come alone or go alone at will and no one can stop me" [C:4].
To establish such a bond requires one to make accurate assessment of his own standing in relation to ones he wants to persuade. Kuei Ku Tzu considered distance/closeness together with what appears to be and what actually is. "When the plan matches [the will] but there is no bond formed, the relationship will appear to be close on the surface but distant beneath the surface.... A distant but [actually] close relation is indicative of hidden affinities. A close but [actually] distant relation is indicative of discordance of wills" [C:12-13]. He also explores the cause of such phenomena:
Two persons of the same passion can be on close terms with each other because both are satisfied.Two persons with the same desire can be distant from each other because there are discrepancies in their predicaments.
Two persons with the same dislikings can be on close terms with each other because they suffer from the same predicament.Two persons with the same dislikings can be distant from each other because there are discrepancies in their predicaments. [J:3-6]
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He concludes, whatever causes mutual benefit will bring closeness. Whatever causes mutual injury will bring distance"[J:7].
Related to the notion of distance/closeness is idea of the internal/external. Kuei Ku Tzu did not elaborate on how or when the line between the internal and the external is drawn. However, from consistent and strong emphasis on quick perceptions of ch'ing and judgment of appropriateness, we can rather safely suggest that it is a matter of perception and judgment. "When the people are orderly and tribute and wealth are coming in, I would establish bonds and seek the agreement internally. When the prince is unenlightened and incompetent, and his subordinates are unruly and unwary, even though bonded, I will turn against him" [C:20].It is also a matter of a persuader's intention and his effort prompted by the intention. "If I desire to win accord, I work on what is internal. If I desire to detach myself, I work on what is external. To discern between the internal and external, I must understand how to calculate, . how to predict coming events and solve problems" [C:19].Knowing how to discern the intricacy between closeness and distance, and knowing where one stands in relation to the persuadee is part of the persuasive method: "Where there is external affinity but internal disagreement,
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persuade from the internal. Where there is internal affinity but external disagreement, persuade from the external" [J:16].
As in many other instances, Kuei Ku Tzu also warned us of the undesired results from failure to observe this rule: "He who belongs to the internal group but speaks like an outsider will be alienated; He who is an outsider but speaks involvingly will be endangered" [J:20].
Establishing the proper internal bond requires one to discern a special kind of information, that of distance. Based on this, one can decide if he wants to move closer or to become more distant. Each movement has its consequence. Success leads one to the desired goal. Failure leads one to danger and disaster.
2. Ti-hsi: Dealing with Fissures
If we have followed our previous discussion carefully, we must have noticed that Kuei Ku Tzu frequently used natural phenomena. or tangible objects to explain his ideas. For instance, pai-ho finds analogy in the opening and closing of the mouth, nei-chien, the internal bonds is explained by the turning of a key to open a lock. He takes a natural phenomenon to explain the basic nature of
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the idea and then expands it further into the realm of persuasion and other aspects of political activity. In this section, we will see yet another such an idea--"dealing with fissures".
In our surroundings, we do see pots break, trees fall and buildings collapse. There is nothing special about it as it is in the nature of things that "there is merger and separation in all events" [D:1], and that "through the merger and separation of things and events, the existence of fissures is inevitable" [D:10]. What is special about Kuei Ku Tzu's observation of this natural phenomenon is that he associates it with political institutions. Thus, a fissure on a pot and how it is dealt with offers insights into the nature of problems in a state and how the problems can be managed and with what implications.
"A fissure (hsi) is a crack. A crack is a gully (chien). A gully is capable of developing into a large chasm" [D:3], and, "starting with [a fissure] the size of the tip of autumn down, I can shake the very foundation of Mt. Tai" [D:6].
The beginning of any fissure, or any troubles, is always very small, and always gives out some clues. Kuei Ku Tzu called them "premonitions". When such signs are perceived, one can decide what to do about it. "I can deal with it by filling it. I can remove it from its
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external causes. I can pacify it. I can conceal it. Or, I can take possession of it" [D14].
The first two methods appear to be proper enough in the handling of utensils as well as in the affairs of a state. The rest seems to apply more fittingly in political situations. "If the world can still be managed, he mends it by filling the fissures. If the world is beyond managing, his method is to take possession of it" [D:8].
Kuei Ku Tzu gives some examples of signs of fissures in a state such as constant warfare which forced families to break up and disperse, constant betrayers and rebellion and so on. [D:7] However, more interesting to note is that "A fissure [which allows one to deal with is an application of method" [D:7].
The fissures inevitably exist, but it does not mean that they all naturally exist. Kuei Ku Tzu did not elaborate any further on this. But it is not too difficult to suspect that he would not be opposed to inflicting some fissures as part of the plan to achieve a greater goal.
3. Fei-ch'ien and Wu-ho
Chapter Five, Fei-ch'ien and Chapter Six, Wu-ho are relatively short. Because they address two sides of an
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issue--fai-chien on how to attract talent and wu-ho on deciding who to devote talent to, they are discussed together in this unit. They both are built upon comprehensive information one must gather about the person in question in the context of the situation in question. When one has adequate grasp of the people and the situation, he can begin to apply these methods.
The purpose of fei-ch'ien is "to attract talents from far and near" [E:1]. The procedure to achieve this goal involves first "weighing people's power " and measuring their potential [E:1]. When the person is judged valuable and to be attracted, then, "employ the expression to which he is most vulnerable of being hooked and manacled, then make him fly and manacle him" [E:3].
This is the essence of fei-ch'ien. "The speech which hooks and manacles is the speech which persuades" [E:3]. The speaker aims at "making him fly with color and then manacling him, hooking him by what he likes" [E:7].
T'ao Hung-ch'ing in his annotation differentiated between manacling by making fly (fei) and by hooking (kuo). "Gaining ch'ing (a feel a for the situation) by seeking a response internally is called "hooking". Gaining ch'ing by making a reputation for him externally is called "making fly". Once I have got the ch'ing, I should manacle and hold him so that he cannot slip away or shift his position" [E:3, note b].
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We have already seen "gaining ch'ing by seeking responses internally" in the previous section. But "making reputation externally" for him is yet another method of gathering ch'ing and at the same time a method of persuasion!
The inclination of the subject's talent may be tested by what his heart responds to. But if all methods fail to produce any result, and if the person is deemed desirable, Kuei Ku Tzu's recommendation is to get control of him by any means and try him out: "He who is unaffected by these [methods] perhaps could be summoned first, then he may be burdened [with heavy responsibilities]. or he should first be burdened and then faulted. The heavy burden may destroy him. Or the attempt to destroy him may become his [testing] burden" [E:4].
An unduly heavy burden may destroy a mediocre talent, but it can also reveal or make a great talent. Kuei Ku Tzu may be well aware of the fact that some people thrive on challenge. Their potential is best fulfilled when challenged severely. "[P]ut him in a pivotal and critical position. Sometimes anticipate his actions, sometimes follow his actions. Matched with manacling and moderated with discretion, this is the sequel of making fly and manacling" [E:9].
If responsibility and challenge alone are not sufficient to attract the continued service of the talent,
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"manacling" suggests a binding force which would not allow him to quit ansily. Kuei Ku Tzu again did not elaborate what constitute the real manacling power within the manacling speech. This, perhaps, is meant to be left to the discretion of the persuader.
The result of successful application of fei-ch'ien is "to go forward empty handed yet come back with something substantial. If I hold him without losing him, I can explore thoroughly the meaning of his speech" [E:10].
The first part is clearly an elaboration on a previous notion that to persuade is to gain something from the person persuaded. It demonstrates the utility of achieved persuasive skill. The second part is also interesting, but for a different reason. "I can explore thoroughly the meaning of his speech " indicates that fei-ch'ien as a method of persuasion, not only for inducing talents to service, but for understanding, also.
Wu-ho (disagreement and agreement) is useful in situations when one must decide whom to pledge allegiance among contending rivals. This is perhaps one major limitation that even a most resourceful persuader will have to be subject to. "He who can accomplish great deeds and whose plan matches mine will be my master. When my plan finds agreement with this person, it will go against another. It cannot [completely] please two parties at the same time.
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In such critical moments, assessment of the situation and the potential master is all the more important. In addition to the ordinary methods of gathering ch'ing, wu-ho is one more method which Kuei Ku Tzu offers: "In the past, he who was skillful at deciding against whom to turn, and to whom to turn, assisted in the affairs of the world. He was able to contain the feuding princes within the ground of agreement and disagreement so that he could turn around at will and finally seek his ground of agreement" [F:7].
This passage may seem to be rather confusing without proper explanation. And Kuei Ku Tzu did provide us with examples of Yi Yin, who assisted T'ang in establishing the Shang Dynasty and Lu Shang, who assisted King Wen in building the Chou Dynasty.
They both identified the right master to serve. But the decision came only after skillful wu-ho. Yi Yin "went to T'ang three times and to Chieh (the last ruler of the Hsia Dynasty) five times, without making clear his decision", while Lu Shang "went to King Wen three times, and to the remnant of the Shang three times without making clear his decision" [F:8].
T'ang was feuding with Chieh, and King Wen was feuding with the remnant of the Shang. In their coming and going between these feuding princes, they gathered ch'ing, and "found out for sure the manacle of the heavenly
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mandate. Only then could they finally give their allegiance without hesitation" [F:8].
It may be worthwhile to point out that obeying the heavenly mandate (t'ien-ming) has been a fundamental concept in Chinese thinking from the very earliest times. This is the ultimate form of ch'ing, and requires the highest skill in its acquisition.
D. CHUEH: DECIDING
If we re-examine quickly the titles of the preceding ten chapters in terms of their specific functions, we find that seven of them, Pai-ho, fan-ying, nei-chien, fei ch'ien, wu-ho, ch'uai and mo, are methods in gathering ch'ing. Ch'üan is to weigh and to assess, mou is to make plans. If the chapter titles are indicative of the author's intentions and thoughts, we can sense a sort of progression: knowing the person, knowing the situation, evaluate this information, make plans accordingly, and, finally, decision point--chüeh. Chapter Eleven is devoted exclusively to making decisions.
It is not surprising that this chapter is rather short. What may be lengthy and time consuming is in the preparation, in the gathering of ch'ing and the planning.
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The act of deciding is only momentary. Briefly but concisely, Kuei Ku Tzu addressed three issues in decision making.
First, he called to our attention the ontological nature of decisions: "Decisions are called for when there is doubt....A good decision maker is consummate in luring the information so that in the end he would have no doubt nor bias" [K:1]. If there is no doubt or uncertainties, there is no need to make decisions. Making decisions requires information. And the result of good decision making is the reduction, or elimination of doubts.
Secondly, he reminded us of the utility of decision making. "A good decision reaps benefit; A bad decision courts disaster" [K:1]. Everyone would want to gain benefit and avoid disaster. However, Kuei Ku Tzu was mindful to reiterate this crucial point. He went further with his explanation: "If a beneficial situation is removed of its benefit, leave it alone....If a situation seems beneficial and benevolent but comes under the disguise of evil, leave it alone" [K:2], and, conversely, "some decisions cause loss of benefits, some cause harmful detachment. These are caused by failures in decision making". [K: 3].
Finally, Kuei Ku Tzu provided us with some guidelines to aid in making decisions:
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If the matter concerns high ranking officials and that it is lofty and may bring good reputation, then decide for it.Review past experiences, infer to things to come, confer with common sense. If all three concur, then decide for it.If the matter does not require much effort and can succeed easily, then decide for it.
If the matter requires dangerous work but cannot be spared, then decide for it.
If the matter aims at ridding of troubles, then decide for it.
If the matter aims at bringing fortune, then decide for it. [K: 6]
These are examples of decisions which would bring benefit and reducing the undesired elements.
At this stage, decisions are only for or against the particular plan.
A yes or no vote. Simple enough.
The beginning was also simple. There were yin and yang, pai and ho. Through the interaction of yin and yang, pai and ho, we have the myriad of situations to deal with. After going through the entire process of acquiring information, assessing it and construing the plan, we are again at a "simple" point.
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